Experiential Learning - Literature Review

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Experiential Learning Practices -

Examining Its Role and Effectiveness for Adult and Child Learners

Deborah M. De Jesus

Ball State University

EDAC 634 - The Adult as a Learner

January 31, 2015

Dr. Bo Chang, Professor

I have read the Ball State University definition of and policy regarding plagiarism.

By affixing this statement to the title page of my paper,

I certify that I have not cheated or plagiarized in the process of completing this assignment.

Abstract

            This paper will explore literature defining and describing experiential learning as well as its role in both adult and child learning environments. After providing definitions and descriptions of experiential learning offered by a variety authors and researchers, this paper will examine major themes presented in the literature, and will conclude with implications and approaches worth considering for improving or enhancing teaching practices used in child and adult learning environments.

Experiential Learning Practices -

Examining Its Role and Effectiveness for Adult and Child Learners

            A considerable amount of information is currently available on the topic of experiential learning ranging from research data published in peer reviewed journal articles to explanations and ideas shared in college textbooks and teacher resource books. Educators from child and adult learning have examined and documented the effectiveness of the experiential learning approach. Many of the characteristics and descriptors associated with experiential learning are derived from the research of Piaget, Dewey, Vygotsky, Lewin, Kolb, and Jarvis. Today, several of these characteristics are deemed essential indicators and descriptors of best practices for children (Hohmann & Weikart, 1995; NAEYC, 2009) as well as effective teaching strategies with adults (Benander, 2009; Green & Ballard, 2011; Hohmann, 1997).

Definitions and Descriptions of Experiential Learning

Experiential learning has been defined and described by a number of philosophers, researchers and educators. Although each has acknowledged the correlation between learning and one’s experiences (Green & Ballard, 2011), different theoretical orientations have resulted in varying hypotheses regarding how exactly individuals learn (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Benander (2009, p. 36) has offered a simplistic description of experiential learning as an individual participating in an activity, followed by critical reflection on his participation, which is captured in the phrase “making meaning from direct experiences.” Bernander’s basic wording is much easier to use in experiential learning discussions than the more sophisticated and complex definition shared by Gentry (n.d.) that was penned by researchers Hoover and Whitehead. Originally presented in 1975, Hoover and Whitehead defined experiential learning as “…when a personally responsible participant cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally processes knowledge, skills, and/or attributes in a learning situation characterized by a high level of involvement.” While quite detailed and encompassing, this definition may imply to some readers that experiential learning is only attainable for older children and adults who are capable of articulating, thus proving, they have successfully processed the knowledge, skills, and/or attributes gained from a particular learning situation.  

The term experiential learning has been used to describe two different types of learning. One depicts learning as a process by which individuals “acquire and apply knowledge, skills, and feelings in an immediate and relevant setting” (Smith, 2010, p. 1) such as in a school or job training program, while the other explains learning as a result of  participation in and reflection on everyday life experiences. Experiential learning can occur in a variety of ways such as by engaging in a direct, embodied experience, participating in a simulated experience, remembering or reliving a past experience, collaborating with others in a community, or by mediating or dreaming (Merriam, et al., 2007).  

Major Influences and Themes in Experiential Learning Literature

Several authors have referenced the theories of Piaget, Dewey, and Kolb in their writings. Piaget’s and Dewey’s belief that human development occurs gradually through sequential stages is the foundation for many perspectives and guiding principles regarding development and learning. Merriam, et al. (2007) reported that Dewey hypothesized that while all “genuine education comes about through experience,” one should not assume that “all experiences are genuinely or equally educative,” and some experiences may actually “mis-educate.” Green & Ballard (2011, p. 12) have credited Dewey and Lindeman with laying the foundation for the theory of experiential learning as a “transformative agent” for child and adult learners. Furthermore, Green & Ballard (2011) have noted that Knowles, a protégé of Lindeman, included the experiential component in his Andragogy learning theory.

It is generally agreed that the work of Piaget and Vygotsky has heavily influenced the structure and practices of early childhood education. Both theorists are considered advocates of experiential learning pedagogy (Hohmann & Weikart, 1995; Stephen, Ellis, & Martlew, 2010). Early childhood educators’ assertion that providing children a safe environment supplied with developmentally appropriate, open-ended materials as well as ample time to explore the materials is rooted in Piaget’s belief that the interaction of individuals with the environment is essential to young children’s learning (NAEYC, 2009; Hohmann & Weikart, 1995). Stephen, et al., (2010) has reported that theories regarding learning derived from the Vygotskian perspective stress that adult-initiated activities and child-initiated experiences together with children’s motives impact children’s knowledge construction and development. The findings of early childhood education researchers Hohmann and Weikart (1995) from the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation support these learning theories. Hohmann and Weikart have coined the phrase ‘active learning’ to describe experiential learning in early childhood educational settings as “the direct and immediate experiencing of objects, people, ideas, and events” (p.16) and have determined such experiences to be “a necessary condition for cognitive restructuring” and children’s development (p.16). This active learning philosophy is at the center of the High/Scope educational framework.

 Kolb has greatly influenced adult education beliefs and practices by expanding on the work of Dewey, Piaget, and Lewin. Many authors have noted in their writing the four features that Kolb (1984) presented as necessary for learning from one’s experiences:

(1) Concrete experiences – being willing and open to engage in new experiences;  

(2) Reflective observations – having the ability to observe and reflect on new experiences from different perspectives;

(3) Abstract conceptualization – possessing the ability to analyze so concepts and ideas can be developed from observations;

(4) Active experimentation – possessing problem-solving abilities and decision-making skills that enable the learner to use new concepts and ideas (Merriam, et al., 2007, p. 164).

Smith has reported that Kolb (in 1975 together with Fry) presented the learning cycle as a ‘continuous cycle’ that can start at any one of the four points. Green & Ballard (2011, p.12) have echoed Smith’s assertion by offering “…a moving, cyclical, and transforming force if one reconstructed the experience mentally and could make meaning of it” as a descriptive explanation. Other authors share a contradicting viewpoint. Atherton (2013) has described the four features as stages: First, a concrete experience occurs, which is followed by a personal reflection. The reflection may be followed by an abstract conceptualization described by the author as either drawing general rules that describe the experience or applying known theories to the experience. This leads to the active experimentation described by Atherton (2013) as a construction of ways to modify the next occurrence, which in turn leads to the next concrete experience. The explanation shared by Merriam, et al. (2007) concurs with that offered by Atherton who stated that Kolb viewed these four competencies as a sequential process that starts with a concrete experience, moves to a reflective observation and on to an abstract conceptualization, and ends with active experimentation.

 In addition, Smith (2010) has stressed two significant aspects of experiential learning are the use of concrete experiences, and feedback to gain new perspectives and understandings.

Atherton (2013) has noted that concrete experiences and reflective observations tend to be personal and private segments of the cycle, and abstract conceptualization and active experimentation are more public, visible processes.

 Despite the inconsistencies among authors in the presentation of Kolb’s four qualities of experiential learning as a constant cycle that can start at any point or as a sequential, step-by-step process that repeats itself, each of the authors included the aspect of reflection in their writing. Reflection during the learning process helps learners understand and then apply what has been learned to different situations. Benander (2009) has offered a straightforward explanation of reflection as being a process in which an individual thinks about an activity in order to make generalizations that he can apply to new situations (p.36). Reflection allows learners to make connections between academic content and personal experiences. Atherton (2013) has emphasized that a learner’s reflections are concentrated on what the experience personally means to the learner. Green & Ballard (201) have reported that reflection is purposeful because it allows the learner to derive new concepts from his experience, and consider how he may modify and adjust his new knowledge for future use.      

Implications and Application

A critical review of the literature indicates a widespread belief that experiential learning is beneficial for learners of all ages. The literature has presented several implications and ideas, which can be applied to enhance or improve teaching practices used in adult and child learning environments. Experiential learning opportunities are possible and appropriate for learners of any age when the teacher shifts his role from one who controls and directs others’ learning to one who facilitates others’ learning through supportive, scaffolding interaction strategies. Because experiential learning is thought of as the interaction of a learner’s goal-oriented actions with circumstances and conditions in the environment that affect the learner’s actions, child and adult educators must provide safe, authentic learning environments and develop appropriate curriculum in which a learner’s investigating, questioning, inquiring, and discovering is encouraged and supported. Reflection is necessary children and adults. Educators can encourage children to remember and reflect on their experiences and associate their actions with outcomes in a number of developmentally appropriate ways. With young learners, educators can initiate personally meaningful conversations about the children’s experiences, incorporate materials used by the children in their recall conversations, play games to remind children of their experiences and spark dialogue, and encourage representations through pantomiming, writing, or drawing to help children construct and represent their memories. Older learners can engage in reflective writing or creative summaries, and interactive dialogues with other learners and mentors.        

Experiential learning is endorsed by respected educational organizations such as High Scope. Extensive printed material on the topic as well as trainings and annual conferences are available for educators. Furthermore, the learning approach’s popularity is substantiated by countless child and adult learners who have constructed new understandings and new knowledge through participation in engaging, meaningful experiences and exposure to new viewpoints and engagement – the ingredients of life-long learning.   

	The Main Themes/Ideas in the Literature	Application of the Main Ideas in Practice
Idea 1:	Knowledge is constructed through meaningful experiences.	Early childhood, elementary, secondary & adult educators should utilize interaction strategies that support experiential learning as well as ensure supportive learning environments and curriculum containing developmentally appropriate and relevant materials and activities that encourage experiential learning.
Idea 2:	The experiential learning approach has been tested and validated by research.	Educators should examine and implement proven, effective experiential learning characteristics and strategies substantiated by research data.
Idea 3:	Both children and adults benefit from experiential learning strategies and methods.	Educators should utilize a variety of age and developmentally appropriate experiential learning strategies to support learners of every age.
Idea 4:	Reflection is a key feature of the experiential learning approach.	Opportunities and developmentally appropriate reflection methods should be incorporated in learning experiences to ensure active engagement and meaningful, long lasting learning benefits.

References

Atherton, J. (2013). Learning and teaching: Experiential learning. Retrieved January 28, 2015

from http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/experience.htm

Benander, R. (2009). Experiential learning in the scholarship of teaching and learning. Journal of

the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 9(2), 36-41. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov. proxy.bsu.edu/?id=EJ854893

Gentry, J. (n.d.). What is experiential learning? Retrieved from http://www/wmich.edu/casp/

            Servicelearning/files/What%20is%20Experiential%20Learning.pdf

Green, G. & Ballard, G. (2011). No substitute for experience: Transforming teacher preparation

with experiential and adult learning practices. SRATE Journal 20 (1), 12-20. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov.proxy.bsu.edu/?id=EJ948702

Hohmann, M. (1997). A study guide to educating young children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope

Press

Hohmann, M. & Weikart, D. (1995). Educating young children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press

Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood. San Francisco,

CA: Jossey-Bass

National Association for the Education of Young Children (2009). Developmentally appropriate

practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8. Retrieved from http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/PSDAP.pdf

Smith, M.(2010). David a. kolb on experiential learning. The Encyclopedia of Informal

Education. Retrieved from http://infed.org/mobi/david-a-kolb-on-experiential-learning